Di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate electrocatalyst and method of oxygen generation

ABSTRACT

A catalyst comprising a di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate, especially Na 1-4 [Ru 2 Zn 2 (H 2 O) 2 (ZnW 9 O 34 ) 2 ]with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm and a method of using the electrocatalyst to generate oxygen.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser.No. 60/511,519, filed Oct. 15, 2003, which is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety for all of its teachings.

BACKGROUND

Developing catalysts for the oxidation of water to dioxygen is importantin understanding the molecular-level details of photosynthesis and alsoin designing alternative energy sources such as regenerative fuel cells.Owing to the thermodynamic and mechanistic constraints of the reactionand the additional requirement that the catalytic site be contained in acoordination environment that is stable under oxidizing conditions, itis perhaps not surprising that there are relatively fewwell-characterized water oxidation catalysts.

The majority of non-biological water oxidation catalysts are related tothe μ-oxy bonded di-ruthenium system first studied by Meyer et al.Gersten, S. W.; Samuels, G. J.; Meyer, T. J., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1982,104, 4029. Other synthetic water oxidation catalysts are known and havebeen reviewed by Dismukes et al. Rüttinger, W.; Dismukes, G. C. Chem.Rev. 1997, 97, 1.

Water oxidation can be carried out, for example, photocatalytically andelectrocatalytically. The study of electrocatalytic water oxidation hasfocused on metal oxide systems, including RuO₂ and IrO₂.

A need still exists for water oxidation catalysts.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides novel di-ruthenium substitutedpolyoxometallate catalysts for the efficient electrochemical generationof oxygen, specifically Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Rudistance of 0.318 nm. The exclusively inorganic nature of the catalystmakes it stable under strongly oxidizing conditions, which is incontrast to catalysts based on organometallic compounds.

Also provided is a method for electrochemical generation of oxygen,specifically by water oxidation, comprising providing a di-rutheniumsubstituted polyoxometallate catalyst, specificallyNa₁₂[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm. Themethod can comprise adding the catalyst to an electrolyte and applying apotential.

The advantages of the present system include chemical stability of thecatalyst, the ability to substitute different transition metals into theactive site of the catalyst, the simplicity of preparation of thecatalyst, and the ability to apply the catalyst to surfaces in astraightforward fashion.

This system is particularly suitable for use in commercial oxygengenerators and regenerative fuel cells, for example.

Aspects of the invention include

-   -   1) The chemical composition Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], with a        Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm, prepared by synthesis from the        corresponding un-substituted Zn-containing POM precursor,        Na₁₂[WZnZn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], using the procedure previously        published by Neumann and co-workers (Neumann, R.; Khenkin, A. M.        Inorg. Chem. 1995, 34, 5753). X-Ray diffraction measurements        demonstrate that the resulting di-Ru-substituted POM corresponds        to Na₁₂[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318        nm.    -   2) A method for the electrochemical generation of oxygen        comprising providing di-Ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate        electrocatalysts. These di-Ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate        catalysts are obtainable by synthesis from their corresponding        un-substituted Zn—POM precursors.    -   3) A method for the electrochemical generation of oxygen        comprising providing the catalyst composition        Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm.    -   4) An electrochemical catalyst composition comprising adsorbed        layers of a di-Ru-substituted polyoxometalate.    -   5) An electrochemical catalyst composition comprising adsorbed        layers of di-Ru-substituted POM        {[WZnRu₂(OH)(H₂O)](ZnW₉O₃₄)₂}¹⁴⁻.    -   6) An electrochemical catalyst assembly comprising the catalyst        composition Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂].

Additional advantages will be set forth in part in the description whichfollows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may belearned by practice of the aspects described below. The advantagesdescribed below will be realized and attained by means of the elementsand combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It isto be understood that both the foregoing general description and thefollowing detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only andare not restrictive.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute apart of this specification, illustrate several aspects described below.Like numbers represent the same elements throughout the figures.

FIG. 1 shows the X-ray crystal structure (ORTEP plot) of the di-Ru POM,[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]¹⁴⁻. The ellipsoids are at 40% probability.

FIG. 2 shows representative data of electrochemical generation of oxygenusing pulsed voltammetry from the first run of Example 1. A=Au anodealone; B=un-substituted Zn—POM (2 μM concentration); C=di-Ru-substitutedPOM (2 μM concentration). Traces are offset for clarity of presentation.

FIG. 3 shows representative data of electrochemical generation of oxygenusing pulsed voltammetry from the second run of Example 1. A=Au anodealone; B=Au+un-substituted Zn—POM (2 μM concentration);C=Au+di-Ru-substituted POM (2 μM concentration); D=Au+mono-Ru POM (2μM). Traces are offset for clarity of presentation.

FIG. 4A shows run 1 representative data of electrochemical generation ofoxygen using pulsed voltammetry with a rotating ring disk electrodeassembly from Example 2.

FIG. 4B shows run 1 polarization curves for oxygen generation fromExample 2.

FIG. 5 shows run 2 results for the ring and disk responses from Example2.

FIG. 6 shows the voltammetric behavior of the di-Ru-substituted POM fromExample 3.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present compounds, compositions, articles, devices, and/ormethods are disclosed and described, it is to be understood that theaspects described below are not limited to specific synthetic methods,specific methods as such may, of course, vary. It is also to beunderstood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescribing particular aspects only and is not intended to be limiting.

In this specification and in the claims which follow, reference will bemade to a number of terms which shall be defined to have the followingmeanings:

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appendedclaims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referentsunless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example,reference to “an electrolyte” includes more than one electrolyte,reference to “a polyoxometalate” includes mixtures of two or more suchpolyoxometalates, and the like.

“Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described eventor circumstance can or cannot occur, and that the description includesinstances where the event or circumstance occurs and instances where itdoes not.

Ranges may be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value,and/or to “about” another particular value. When such a range isexpressed, another aspect includes from the one particular value and/orto the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed asapproximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understoodthat the particular value forms another aspect. It will be furtherunderstood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant bothin relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the otherendpoint.

Polyoxometalates (POMs) are highly symmetric, stable, nanometer scaleclusters which resemble discrete fragments of bulk metal oxide phaseswith characteristic sizes and shapes. They generally contain earlytransition metal ions coordinated to oxygen in an octahedralenvironment. POMs adsorbed on metal substrates are good models of metaloxide surfaces. One of the most attractive features of polyoxometalates(POMs) as catalysts is that the wholly inorganic coordinationenvironment makes them inherently stable to oxidative decomposition.

Several years ago, Neumann, et al. (Neumann, R.; Khenkin, A. M. Inorg.Chem. 1995, 34, 5753) synthesized a Ru-substituted POM catalyst,{[WZnRu₂(OH)(H₂O)](ZnW₉O₃₄)₂}¹¹⁻, that can be succinctly described asconsisting of a central “belt” of four transition metals (WZnRu₂) cappedat both axial positions by a polyoxometalate framework. The Ru—Ruinteratomic distance was measured to be about 0.5 nm. This class oftransition-metal-substituted POMs has been shown to catalyze a varietyof organic oxidations in diverse media, but these compounds have notpreviously been used as water oxidation catalysts.

A di-Ru-substituted POM of the invention was synthesized from thecorresponding un-substituted Zn-containing POM precursor,Na₁₂[WZnZn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], using the procedure previously publishedby Neumann and co-workers (Neumann, et al. 1995). X-Ray diffractionmeasurements demonstrated that the resulting di-Ru-substituted POMcorresponds to Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru distance of0.318 nm. Neumann and co-workers reported a different structure for thecomposition they produced, assigned as Na₁₂[WZnRu₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] witha Ru—Ru interatomic distance of about 0.5 nm.

The di-Ru-substituted POM [Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]¹⁴⁻ was demonstratedto be an effective catalyst for the electrochemical generation ofoxygen. It shares many of the positive features of other stable wateroxidation catalysts. Adsorbed layers of this compound are expected toprovide an excellent model for metal oxide-based electrode materials.

Preferred embodiments of the present invention include

-   -   1) The chemical composition Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a        Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm, prepared by synthesis from the        corresponding un-substituted Zn-containing POM precursor,        Na₁₂[WZnZn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], using the procedure previously        published by Neumann and co-workers. X-Ray diffraction        measurements demonstrated that the resulting di-Ru-substituted        POM corresponds to Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru        distance of 0.318 nm.    -   2) A method for the electrochemical generation of oxygen        comprising providing di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate        electrocatalysts which are obtainable by synthesis from the        corresponding un-substituted Zn—POM precursors.    -   3) A method for the electrochemical generation of oxygen        comprising providing the catalyst composition        Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm.    -   4) An electrochemical catalyst composition comprising adsorbed        layers of di-Ru-substituted polyoxometalates.    -   5) An electrochemical catalyst composition comprising adsorbed        layers of di-Ru-substituted POM [Ru₂Zn ₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]¹⁴⁻.    -   6) An electrochemical catalyst assembly comprising the catalyst        composition of the invention.        A. Compositions

One aspect of the invention, described herein, includesdi-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate electrocatalysts.

In a more specific aspect the invention includes the composition havingthe formula Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318nm. See FIG. 1 for the X-ray crystal structure of[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]¹⁴⁻. The composition was made using the methoddescribed below. X-ray diffraction measurements and elemental analysisshowed the Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] structure and the Ru—Rudistance.

B. Synthetic Methods

A di-Ru-substituted POM of the invention was synthesized from thecorresponding un-substituted Zn—POM precursor using the procedurepreviously published by Neumann and co-workers, supra. Specifically,

Na₁₂[WZnZn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]+Ru(dmso)₂Cl₄→Na₁₂[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]

Other methods of synthesizing (or variations thereof) the catalysts ofthe present invention are within the skill of one of ordinary skill inthe art.

C. Utility

The compositions of the present application are useful as catalysts, forexample, the compositions can be used to catalyze the electrochemicalgeneration of oxygen.

Though not wishing to be bound by any mechanisms, it is believed thatthe proximity of the two ruthenium atoms in the present compositionappears to be a key factor in the electocatalyst's ability to generateO₂.

A method of the invention comprises providing a composition of theinvention, e.g., Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] to a reaction mediumcontaining oxygen under conditions effective to catalyze the generationof dioxygen. For example, the method can comprise adding the catalystcomposition to an electrolyte, providing electrodes, and providing apotential to the system effective to generate oxygen, O₂. In a preferredembodiment, the electrolyte solution is aqueous, the electrodes includean Au anode, and the potential is about 0.74V at a pH of about 7 toabout 8.

The catalysts can also be used in various apparatuses, for example,those utilizing electrochemical generation of oxygen. Specific examplesinclude oxygen generators and regenerative fuel cells.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinaryskill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how thecompounds, compositions, articles, devices, and/or methods described andclaimed herein are made and evaluated, and are intended to be purelyexemplary and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventorsregard as their invention. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracywith respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.) but someerrors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicatedotherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in ° C. or is atambient temperature, and pressure is at or near atmospheric. There arenumerous variations and combinations of reaction conditions, e.g.,component concentrations, desired solvents, solvent mixtures,temperatures, pressures and other reaction ranges and conditions thatcan be used to optimize the product purity and yield obtained from thedescribed process. Only reasonable and routine experimentation will berequired to optimize such process conditions.

Example 1 Generation of Oxygen

The electrochemical generation of oxygen was studied using pulsedvoltammetry.

Experimental Conditions:

In the first set of experiments, the amount of oxygen produced wasmeasured using a Clark oxygen sensor fabricated with a 25 μm diameter Ptdisk as the working electrode.

A three-point calibration of the Clark electrode was carried out usingN₂-saturated, air-saturated, and O₂-saturated solutions as standards.These solutions gave a sensor response of 0, −1.5, and −5.3 nA,respectively. To relate this calibration data to a known electrochemicalresponse, oxygen evolution from the naked Au anode (2 cm² surface area)was measured using the same sensor. When a potential pulse (2 sec) of2.0V was applied to the Au anode, a sensor response of −2.1 nA wasmeasured. At potentials of 1.5 V and 1.0 V, the sensor response was−0.73 nA and −0.36 nA, respectively.

The sensor assembly was separated from the test solution with anoxygen-permeable Teflon® membrane and held in close physical proximityto a polycrystalline Au anode that served as the working electrode (theClark sensor and Au anode served as dual working electrodes) in aconventional three-electrode electrochemical cell in which a Pt wire wasthe counter electrode and an Ag wire served as a quasi-referenceelectrode (QRE).

The potentials of the Clark sensor and the Au anode were controlledusing a conventional bipotentiostat. The potential of the Ag QRE wascalibrated using a normal hydrogen electrode (NHE), and all potentialswere referenced to the H⁺/H₂ couple. The supporting electrolyte was a pH8 phosphate buffer in which the total analytical concentration ofphosphate was 0.10 M.

Oxygen generation experiments were performed in solutions that had beenpurged with ultrahigh purity N₂ for 30 min. and that were maintainedunder a N₂ atmosphere during all measurements.

The Au anode was stepped from a rest potential of +0.3 V (vs. NHE) to aseries of increasingly positive potentials. The duration of each voltagepulse was 2 sec.; after each pulse, the potential was stepped back to+0.3 V to re-establish the baseline.

A second run was also performed with slightly different experimentalconditions:

-   -   Clark sensor had a 500 μm diameter Pt disk    -   Au anode was stepped from a rest potential of +0.2 V (vs H⁺/H₂)        to a series of increasingly positive potentials    -   duration of each voltage pulse was 5 sec.; after each pulse, the        potential was stepped back to +0.2 V to re-establish the        baseline        Results:

The amperometric response of the Clark electrode was measuredcontinuously as the Au anode was subjected to the first potentialprogram and was plotted as a function of time. Representative data arepresented in FIG. 2.

The amperometric response of the Clark electrode for the second run isshown in FIG. 3.

The baseline level of the Clark sensor was approximately the same in allruns; the traces have been offset for clarity of presentation.

Trace A shows the response of the Au anode alone (no catalyst) to aseries of voltage pulses in pH 8 phosphate electrolyte. No measurableoxygen generation is observed from the Au electrode until a potential ofnearly +1.4 V (+1.05 V in second run) is applied, consistent with theknown oxygen generation behavior of Au electrodes (see e.g., Conway, B.E. Prog. Surf. Sci 1995 49, 331). The small (i.e., pA) current spikesthat are observed in this data set are due to capacitive chargingeffects that occur when the potential of the working electrode isstepped and are non-faradaic in nature.

Trace B shows the response of the system to an identical potentialprogram after the addition of the un-substituted di-Zn—POM (spiking withan aliquot of a stock solution of the un-substituted Zn—POM and theelectrolyte) to the electrochemical cell. The analytical concentrationof Zn—POM was 2 μM. The behavior of this system was identical to thebehavior of the Au anode alone, indicating that the as-prepared Zn—POMis not catalytically active for oxygen generation. Decomposition of thePOM to form small amounts of oxygen was not observed to take place toany measurable extent.

Trace C shows the response of the Clark sensor after the addition ofdi-Ru-substituted POM (addition of solution of di-Ru-substituted POM andelectrolyte) to pure electrolyte (2 μM final concentration).Electrochemically driven generation of oxygen by this system was clearlyobserved as negative-going current spikes in phase with the appliedpotential pulses. The amperometric response of the Clark sensorcorresponds to the reduction of dioxygen; therefore, negative-goingcurrents correspond to the generation of oxygen, and positive-goingcurrents correspond to a decrease in the amount of oxygen at the sensor.

From these data, it is clear that oxygen generation was only observedwhen the working electrode potential is stepped positively from the restpotential; when the potential was stepped back to +0.3 V (+0.2V), theresponse of the oxygen sensor (Clark sensor) returned rapidly to itsbaseline value.

Trace D of the second run (FIG. 3) shows the response of the Clarksensor in a solution containing a mono-substituted RuPOM catalyst,[PW₁₁O₃₉Ru(H₂O)]⁴⁻, a compound first synthesized by Pope et al. thatexhibits a Keggin-type structure (Rong, C.; Pope, M. T. J. Am. Chem.Soc. 1992 114, 2932). No catalytic activity for oxygen generation wasobserved for this compound.

Example 2 Characterization of the System

The reproducibility of the Clark sensor was found to be a sensitivefunction of its placement with respect to the Au anode. To overcome thislimitation, further characterization of this system was carried outusing a rotating ring disk electrode assembly.

Oxygen generated at the Au disk anode was collected at a Pt ring. Masstransport from the disk to the ring was controlled by appropriate choiceof the electrode rotation rate. The disk response consists of an initialrapid response (i.e., anodic) increase in current, followed by a slower,quasi-Cottrell (i.e., i∝f^(1/2)) decrease (see inset of FIG. 5). Thecurrent-time response was similar to that of a stationary electrodebecause the voltage pulses were kept shorter than the time required toestablish a steady-state current in order to prevent the accumulation ofexcess oxygen. When the potential was stepped back to its base value, anegative-going current was observed due to reduction of oxygen in thedouble layer.

In these experiments, which are conceptually similar to those describedin Example 1, the Pt ring was maintained at a constant potential of −0.7V while the potential of the Au disk was pulsed to increasingly positivevoltages in run 1 (−0.20V in run 2 (pulse duration, 5 s)). The currentat the Pt disk was measured at a rotation rate of 3000 rpm for run 1,which was determined empirically to be optimum. The rotation rate forrun 2 was 1600 rpm.

Representative data for run 1 are plotted in FIG. 4A for measurementscarried out at pH 8. Polarization curves for oxygen generation for run 1were constructed by plotting the maximum ring current observed duringthe pulse as a function of the disk potential and are shown in FIG. 4B.The observed E_(1/2) for oxygen generation appeared to be consistentwith the thermodynamics of water oxidation (E°=+0.760 V vs. NHE at pH8).

FIG. 5 shows the results of run 2. The response of the Pt ring to thevoltage program is shown in the lower trace; the pulse shapes arequalitatively similar to those seen for the disk. A small but noticeabledip in the ring response occurs at the same time point that the cathodicdisk current reaches its maximum value and is due to the disk shieldingthe ring. An approximate E_(1/2) for the electrocatalytic generation ofoxygen of +0.750 V was calculated from the disk i-E data and isconsistent with the thermodynamics of oxygen generation and with theredox properties of the di-Ru POM electrocatalyst.

Example 3 Redox Properties of the POM

The redox properties of the POM itself must be consistent with theobserved E_(1/2) for oxygen generation; therefore, we measured thevoltammetric behavior of the di-Ru-substituted POM itself, FIG. 6.

Tentative assignment of these voltammetric features were made bycomparing them to the previously reported study of Pope et al. (Rong,C.; Pope, M. T. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 2932), who measured thevoltammetric behavior of the related Ru-POM, [PW₁₁O₃₉Ru^(III)(H₂O)]⁴⁻.The E_(1/2) values of the Ru^(II/III), Ru^(III/IV) and Ru^(IV/V) coupleswere found to be −0.10, +0.20, and +0.85 V, respectively, at pH 7. Thesevalues are in qualitative agreement with our findings.

Cyclic voltammetry shows three waves at ca. −0.15, +0.28, and +0.76 Vfor the compound, which was tentatively assigned as corresponding toRu^(II/III), Ru^(III/IV) and Ru^(IV/V) couples.

The disk current was sampled at a constant delay time after each voltagepulse and a Tafel analysis (i.e., a plot of In i vs. E) was performed. ATafel slope of ca. 120 mV was found, about twice the value typicallyobserved for RuO2, but typical of values measured for perovskite anodes(Bockris, J. O'M.; Otagawa, T. J. Phys. Chem. 1983, 87, 2960).

Throughout this application, various publications are referenced. Thedisclosures of these publications in their entireties are herebyincorporated by reference into this application in order to more fullydescribe the compounds, compositions and methods described herein.

Various modifications and variations can be made to the compounds,compositions and methods described herein. Other aspects of thecompounds, compositions and methods described herein will be apparentfrom consideration of the specification and practice of the compounds,compositions and methods disclosed herein. It is intended that thespecification and examples be considered as exemplary.

1. A composition comprising Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Rudistance of 0.318 nm.
 2. The composition of claim 1 wherein thecomposition is prepared from a corresponding un-substitutedZn-containing POM precursor, Na₁₂[WZnZn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂].
 3. Acomposition prepared by the method comprising refluxingNa₁₂[WZnZn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with Ru at 90° C. for 12 hr.
 4. A catalystcomprising Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318nm.
 5. A method for the electrochemical generation of oxygen gascomprising providing a di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalatecatalyst, adding the catalyst to a reaction medium containing oxygenunder conditions effective to generate oxygen gas, O₂.
 6. The method ofclaim 5 wherein the di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate catalyst isobtainable by synthesis from a corresponding un-substituted Zn—POMprecursor.
 7. The method of claim 5 wherein the catalyst comprisesNa₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂] with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm.
 8. Themethod of claim 7 further comprising providing electrodes, and providinga potential to the system effective to generate O₂, wherein the reactionmedium is an electrolyte, the electrodes include an Au anode, and thepotential is about 0.74V at a pH of about 7 to about
 8. 9. A method ofwater oxidation comprising providing Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]catalyst, adding the catalyst to an aqueous electrolyte, providingelectrodes to the electrolyte including an Au anode, and providing apotential to the electrolyte effective to oxidize water into oxygen gasO₂wherein the effective potential is about 0.74V at a pH of about 7 toabout
 8. 10. An electrochemical catalyst composition comprising adsorbedlayers of di-Ru-substituted polyoxometalates.
 11. The catalyst of claim10 comprising adsorbed layers of di-Ru-substituted POM[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂]¹⁴⁻.
 12. An electrochemical catalyst assemblycomprising the composition of claim
 1. 13. An oxygen generatorcomprising a di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate electrocatalyst.14. The generator of claim 13 wherein the electrocatalyst isNa₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm.
 15. Anelectrode comprising a di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalateelectrocatalyst.
 16. The electrode of claim 15 wherein theelectrocatalyst is Na₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], with a Ru—Ru distanceof 0.318 nm.
 17. The electrode of claim 15 wherein the electrocatalystis adsorbed in layers on the electrode.
 18. A regenerative fuel cellcomprising a di-ruthenium-substituted polyoxometalate electrocatalyst.19. The fuel cell of claim 18 wherein the electrocatalyst isNa₁₄[Ru₂Zn₂(H₂O)₂(ZnW₉O₃₄)₂], with a Ru—Ru distance of 0.318 nm.